When Dubai is mentioned, many people think of the iconic Burj Al Arab - the hotel built out on a spit in the Gulf, that looks like a giant sail. The Burj claims to be "The Best Hotel in the World", and has given itself 7 stars. It is the world's tallest dedicated hotel, and all 202 of its suites and two-storey, with unbeatable views.

If you think the outside looks impressive, wait till you get inside - the "ostentatious opulence will leave you reeling" (to steal a quote from my Guide book). The lower lobby area has a dancing fountain, and two massive tropical fish-tank-walls. Ride up the escalator into the main lobby area, looking up as you do into the soaring atrium, with its over-the-top gold and blue décor. Then look down at the garish carpet that clashes terribly, but somehow works amongst the other gaudy appointments.

To get up close to the Burj Al Arab, you need to either be staying there, or have an advance reservation to dine in one of the restaurants, or to have a drink in one of the bars. As you can imagine, dining doesn't come cheap here, so one of the more economical options is to go for afternoon tea. Booking a few weeks in advance, the only afternoon tea slot available was at 5.30pm in the Sahn Eddar Atrium Bar, located off the hotel's lobby.

Engineering Solutions for a Quality, Safety, and Cost Conscious Aviation Industry

S.No	Courses	Duration
1	Apprentice Mech. Course (Aerospace)	3 Years
2	Apprentice Mech. Course (Avionics)	3 Years
3	Aircraft Maintenance Familiarization # 3	12 Weeks
4	Aircraft Maintenance Familiarization # 4	12 Weeks
5	Aircraft Maintenance Familiarization # 5	12 Weeks

For further details please contact:

Chief Instructor Apprentice

E-mail: ptc.app@piac.aero

Phone: +92 21 9044767

Aerospace

S.No	Course	Duration
Basic Courses
1	Basic Airframe (A/F)	09 Weeks+02 Days
2	Basic Airframe Familiarization	02 Weeks+02 Days
3	Basic Gas Turbine (G/T)	07 Weeks
4	Basic Gas Turbine Familiarization	01 Week+01 Day
5	Basic Structure Repair	04 Weeks+03 Days
6	Basic Cabin Maintenance	03 Weeks+03 Days
7	Aircraft Cleaning	08 Days
Refresher Courses
1	Basic Airframe Refresher	02 Weeks+02 Days
2	B-737-300 Airframe Maintenance Refresher	07 Days+03 Days
4	A 310-300 Airframe Maintenance Refresher	02 Weeks+02 Days
5	Basic Gas Turbine (Refresher)	02 Weeks+01 Day
6	R/R Dart 528/532 Engine Maintenance Refresher	01 Week+01 Day
7	CFM56-3B2 Engine Maintenance Refresher	01 Week+01 Day
Equipment / Job Specific Courses
1	B-777-200ER Airframe Maintenance	06 Weeks
2	B-777-200ER Familiarization	06 Days
3	B-777-200ER Common Subjects	04 Weeks
4	B-737-300 Airframe Maintenance	07 Weeks
5	A-310-300 Airframe Maintenance	06 Weeks
6	A-310-300 Maintenance ETOPs	02 Days
7	B-747-200/300 Airframe Maintenance	08 Weeks
8	ATR 42-500 Aerospace System	06 Weeks
9	PT6-27 Engine Maintenance	07 Days
10	R/R Dar6t 528/532 Engine Maintenance	06 Weeks
11	CFM56-3B2 Engine Maintenance	05 Weeks+04 Days
12	CF6-80C2 Engine Maintenance	04 Weeks+03 Days
13	CF6-50E2 Engine Maintenance	04 Weeks+03 Days
14	JT9D Engine Maintenance	04 Weeks+03 Days
15	RB211 Engine Maintenance	04 Weeks+03 Days
16	CF6-80C2 TO E2 Engine Maintenance Conversion.	03 Days
17	GE90-94B Engine Maintenance	02 Weeks
18	B-747 Engine (RB211) Maintenance Conversion	02 Weeks+03 Days
19	P&W 4100 Engine Maintenance	04 Weeks+03 Days
20	CF6-80C2 Module Replacement	03 Weeks+02 Days
21	APU Courses	02 Weeks
22	A-300/310 Structure Repair	02 Weeks+02 Days
23	Composite Repair	02 Weeks+02 Days
24	Composite Repair Familiarization	06 Days
25	Repair of Advance Composites Structure	06 Days
26	A/C Wheel Assembly O/H	04 Weeks
27	B-737 Hydraulic System	01 Week+01 Day
28	A-310 Hydraulic System	01 Week+01 Day
29	B-747 Hydraulic System	01 Week+01 Day
30	B-737 Pneumatic System	01 Week+01 Day
31	B-747 Pneumatic System	01 Week+01 Day
32	A-310 Pneumatic System	01 Week+01 Day
33	B-737 Miscellaneous System	01 Week+01 Day
34	B-747 Miscellaneous System	01 Week+01 Day
35	A-310 Miscellaneous System	01 Week+01 Day
36	B-737 Fuel System	01 Week+01 Day
37	B-747 Fuel System	01 Week+01 Day
38	A-310 Fuel System	01 Week+01 Day
39	ATR Fuel Component	01 Week
40	B 777 Fuel Component	01 Week
41	APU GTCP 331-500 (B777)	01 Week
42	APU GTCP 331-300 (A310)	01 Week
Department Sponsored Courses
1	Human Factors	02 Days
2	Air Legislation	02 Days

BASIC COURSES
1	Basic Avionics Amalgamation for Cat "R" Engineers (Differences)	4 Weeks
2	Basic Avionics Amalgamation for Cat "X" Engineers	8 Weeks
3	Basic Avionics Amalgamation for Cat "X" Engineers (Differences)	4 Weeks
4	Basic Communication / Navigation Conversion For E/I	5 Weeks
5	Basic Computer Technology	6 Weeks
6	Basic Digital & Microprocessor	18 Days
7	Basic Electricity & Electronics	7 Weeks
8	Basic Instrument/INS/IRS/GPWS	9 Weeks
9	Basic Pulse	6 Weeks
10	Basic Radar	5 Weeks
11	Solid State Electronics	4 Weeks
REFRESHER COURSES
1	A310-300 Electrical System Refresher	8 Days
2	A310 Inst/AFS Refresher	8 Days
3	B737 Electrical System Refresher	8 Days
4	Basic C/N Refresher	2 Weeks
5	Basic Electrical Refresher	12 Days
6	Basic Instrument Refresher	12 Days
7	Basic Instrument/INS/IRS Refresher	2 Weeks
8	Basic Pulse Refresher	2 Weeks
9	Human Factor/Air Legislation Refresher	1 Day
EQUIPMENT / JOB SPECIFIC COURSE
1	A310 C/N/R System	3 Weeks
2	A310 ETOPS	2 Days
3	A310-300 Electrical System	6 Weeks
4	A310-300 Instrument / AFS Maintenance	6 Weeks
5	A310-PW 4000 Avionics Differences	2 Days
6	ATR-42-500 Avionics System	5 Weeks
7	ATR 42-500 Familiarization Course	2 Weeks
8	B737 C/N/R System	18 Days
9	B737 Instrument / AFS	6 Weeks
10	B737-300 Electrical System	6 Weeks
11	B737-300/33A Avionics Differences	1 Week
12	B747-200 Electrical System	6 Weeks
13	B747-200 Instrument/AFS	6 Weeks
14	B747-200/300 Differences	1 Week
15	B777 Familiarization (Honeywell Eqpt) for Managers	1 Day
16	B777-200 ER Avionics Maintenance	10 Weeks
17	B777-200 ER Familiarization	3 Weeks
18	B777-ER/LR One Man Transit Certification	1 Week
19	IFE Familiarization	1 Week
20	IFE MAS 3000	1 Week
21	IFE MAS 2000	4 Days
22	Ground Navigation Aids	1 Week
DEPARTMENT SPONSORED COURSES
1	Human Factor	2 Days
2	Aviation Legislation	4 Days
3	Standard Maintenance Practices	2 Days

For further details please contact:

Chief Instructor Avionics

E-mail: ptc.av@piac.aero Phone: +92 21 9044754

We are leading Airline Training Institution. Join us to build your career in Airline Industry. We offer Airline Training in all areas of the Airline Industry. We have one of the most advanced Airline training infrastructures approved by local and international regulatory authorities such as CAA, ICAO and IATA.

Functions

• To develop and conduct quality training as per the requirements of user departments and regulatory authorities
• To maintain centralized training database of all PIA personnel for organizing HR activity
• To maintain regular contact with vendors regarding new functionalities, modifications and additions to update training programmes and train the instructors
• To formulate criteria which will enable the training of PIA personnel to achieve excellence in their respective fields/functions
• To conduct courses, workshops, seminars, workouts, conventions, and to present papers so as to make PTC prominent in aviation training, particularly in this region

History of PIA Training Centre

Welcome to the PIA Training Centre, Karachi-an institution of comprehensive instruction dedicated towards imparting quality training in all the major areas associated with civil air transport. The centre is housed in a three-storied spacious building, essentially self-contained in facilities and centrally air-conditioned. It is situated about 300 yards from the Corporate Head Office building of PIA.

The prestige and esteem that the Training Centre enjoys has been a result of tireless efforts expended, since the very inception of PIA in 1956, in making the programmes of study worthy of its name. Training has been offered for PIA employees as well as for other airlines' staff intending to work, or already working as members of the cockpit and flight service crew, as passenger service and marketing staff, and as mechanics and engineers, etc. It was in 1960 that all training was amalgamated under one roof at the Hotel Midway House, Karachi. The Centre was moved to its present premises in October 1975.

Specialist instructors are assigned at the Centre for imparting rigorous training to those who fly, and to those who service and maintain various types of aircraft (B-747-200, A-310, A-300, B-737, B-777). The training aids and equipment used are the latest. The methods of knowledge and skill transfer, adopted at the PIA Training Centre, are varied all pragmatic and useful. Classroom lectures are augmented by group discussion, observations, experiments, simulations, case studies, etc. Study tours to a number of PIA facilities are regularly conducted and seminars on topics of general interest are frequently convened.

Training facilities available within the airline also include flight simulators which are used in the Transition and recurrent Training of pilots and other operational crew. The equipment here includes: a cabin service procedures trainer, A310 Flight Simulator, 747-200 Flight Simulator and B743 FFS with RB211 Engines also A-310 Video & Audio Computer Based Instructions ( VACBI ) Systems. These are largely supplemented with apprentice workshops and laboratories for new entrants.

During the past, for many years the PIA Training Centre has also been instrumental in rendering training to a large number of pilots, engineers, flight stewards/stewardesses, traffic and sales personnel from over 30 airlines and associated agencies worldwide, mostly from Asian and African countries

In 1962, finding the upper winds forecast favorable, PIA set out to break the record for the fastest flight between London and Karachi. With representatives of FAI (Federation Aeronautique International) on board to monitor the official timings, PIA completed the flight in 6 hours, 43 minutes, 51 seconds, a record which remains unbroken to this day.

In 1964, PIA achieved another historic first, regarded as a major milestones in the chequered history of the airline. On 29th April, 1964, with a Boeing 720B, PIA earned the distinction of becoming the first airline from a non-communist country to fly into the People’s Republic of China. PIA's first service to China was from Karachi to Shanghai via Canton. In 1964-65, PIA expanded its fleet further with the addition of a fourth Boeing 720B and two Fokker F-27s. Serious development had become a reality and the PIA team continued to move ahead with ambitious plans and goals for the national flag carrier.

A collective pride and a joyous buoyancy was pervasive within the PIA family. Riding high on the crest of success, PIA became a household name in Pakistan in the mid sixties. The war between India and Pakistan, during 1965, further tested the national airline. PIA played a major role in providing logistical support to the Armed Forces by operating special flights using Boeings, Super Constellations, and Viscounts. The Founder of the Nation, Mr. Jinnah had predicted that the Pakistan Airforce would need the support of a civil airline in special circumstances, and this came into evidence during the war.

In 1966, a system of feeder services linking eight new points in West Pakistan was introduced. By this time, the airline's Viscounts were proving inadequate owing to traffic growth, and had to be replaced by Tridents. The airline continued up the growth curve, receiving two Fokker F-27s, two Boeing 707s and one Trident in the following year

The year 1955 also marked the inauguration of the fledgling airline's first scheduled international service - to the glittering, glitzy capital city of London, via Cairo and Rome. Initially, there was much criticism, as the public could not comprehend or justify the need to operate an international route when, in their opinion, other projects vital for a developing country should have been given a higher priority. However, PIA's focus was, and continues to be, to serve the Pakistani community at large. The provision of transportation to expatriates has remained one of the foremost priorities of the national airline. Moreover, PIA earned substantial foreign exchange through international services, which it invested in the purchase of aircraft and spare parts, as fleet expansion was a grave necessity for the airline.

Orient Airways was a privately owned company, with limited capital and resources. It could not be expected to grow and expand independently. It was then that the Government of Pakistan decided to form a state-owned airline and invited Orient Airways to merge with it. The outcome of the merger was the birth of a new airline, through PIAC Ordinance 1955 on January 10, 1955.

In addition to transport activities, Orient Airways had established the nucleus of overhaul and maintenance facilities and acquired trained pilots, engineers and technicians, measures which proved to be a great asset for PIA during its teething phase.

On 23rd October 1946, a new airline was born. Initially registered as a pilot project in Calcutta, Orient Airways Ltd. had at its helm Mr. M.A. Ispahani as Chairman and Air Vice Marshal O.K. Carter as General Manager. The new carrier's base remained in Calcutta and an operating license was obtained in May 1947.

Four Douglas DC-3s were purchased from Tempo of Texas in February 1947 and operations commenced on 4th June 1947. The designated route for Orient Airways was Calcutta-Akyab-Rangoon, which also happened to be the first post-war international sector to be flown by an airline registered in India. Within two months of Orient Airways' operational beginnings, Pakistan was born. The birth of a new nation generated one of the largest transfers of population in the history of mankind.

Orient Airways, along with the help of BOAC aircraft which had been chartered by the Government of Pakistan, started relief operations and transportation of people between Delhi and Karachi, the two capitals. Subsequently, Orient Airways transferred its base to Pakistan and established a vital link between Karachi and Dacca, the two capitals of the two wings of Pakistan. With a skeleton fleet of just two DC-3s, three crew members, and twelve mechanics, Orient Airways launched its scheduled operations in a fairy-tale manner. The initial routes were Karachi-Lahore-Peshawar, Karachi-Quetta-Lahore and Karachi-Delhi Calcutta-Dacca. By the end of 1949, Orient Airways had acquired 10 DC-3s and 3 Convair 240s which were operated on these routes. In 1950, it had become increasingly apparent that additional capacity would have to be inducted to cater to the growing needs of the sub-continent.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEER

If you are 18 years of age or above, with a Higher Secondary School Certificate, go to your nearest flying organization. Each flying organization has a maintenance organization which you will be joining. You will be issued with a Technician Registration Card (TRC) and will begin your training to get an Aircraft Maintenance Engineer License (AME-LWTR). Read the detailed requirement for AME-LWTR in the Licensing Regulations. Type Ratings are issued by the Airworthiness Directorate, CAA.

PILOT

If you are 17 years of age or above, with a Higher Secondary School Certificate, go to your nearest flying club for guidance. Initially, you will be issued with a Student Pilot License (SPL). Thereafter, you can begin the training for the Private Pilot License (PPL) or for the Commercial Pilot License (CPL). You may read the detailed requirements in the Licensing Regulations.

For uncertified aircraft of less than 580 KG weight like the Sports, UltraLights, Powered Parachute etc, Microlight Competency Certificate (MCC) is issued. Ultralight & Sports Flying Club Lahore is a recognized institution for the conduct of training for the Microlight Competency Certificate (MCC) in the category of Sports and Ultralight.. Similarly, there are other CAA Approved Microlight Organizations in other Categories. You may contact the near Microlight Organization for further guidance; and read the Licensing Regulations.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLER

To get an Air Traffic Controller License (ATCL), you will be required to join the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) because only the CAA inducts and conducts the basic training for the ATC License. Advertisements for the Air Traffic Controller vacancies appear in the national newspapers as and when a fresh induction is required by the CAA. Read the detailed requirement for the ATC License in the Licensing Regulations.

FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICER

If you are 21 years of age or above, with a Higher Secondary School Certificate, you are eligible to apply for the Flight Operations Officer License (FOOL). You will need to read the Licensing Regulations to know what exemptions are applicable to you on the basis of holding a flying license or your aviation related experience. Visit the nearest Operation Room of an Airline or the Shaheen Airport services to get further guidance.

FLIGHT ENGINEER

If you are 17 years of age or above, with a Bachelor of Science Degree, you are eligible to apply for a Flight Engineer License (FEL). Only Pakistan International Airline inducts and conducts training of the Flight Engineers. Read the detailed requirement in the Licensing Regulations.

CABIN ATTENDANT

Cabin Attendants are issued with Competency Certificates- Cabin (CCC). You need to be of 18 years of age or above with a Higher Secondary School Certificate. Cabin Attendants are inducted by Commercial Air Transport Operators (Airlines). The Airlines train them at their training centers. Advertisements for new vacancies appear in the national newspapers as and when an Airline needs a fresh induction. Read the detailed requirement in the General ,Specific

(Part-66) 66.1
For the purpose of this Part, the competent authority shall be the authority designated by the Member State to whom a
person applies for the issuance of an aircraft maintenance licence.
SECTION A
SUBPART A
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE LICENCE AEROPLANES AND HELICOPTERS
66.A.1 Scope
(a) This section establishes the requirements for the issue of an aircraft maintenance licence and conditions of its validity
and use, for aeroplanes and helicopters of the following categories:
— Category A
— Category B1
— Category B2
— Category C
(b) Categories A and B1 are subdivided into subcategories relative to combinations of aeroplanes, helicopters, turbine
and piston engines. The subcategories are:
— A1 and B1.1 Aeroplanes Turbine
— A2 and B1.2 Aeroplanes Piston
— A3 and B1.3 Helicopters Turbine
— A4 and B1.4 Helicopters Piston
66.A.10 Application
An application for an aircraft maintenance licence or amendment to such licence shall be made on EASA Form 19 and
in a manner established by the competent authority and submitted thereto. An application for the amendment to an
aircraft maintenance licence shall be made to the competent authority that issued the aircraft maintenance licence.
66.A.15 Eligibility
An applicant for an aircraft maintenance licence shall be at least 18 years of age.
66.A.20 Privileges
(a) Subject to compliance with paragraph (b), the following privileges shall apply:
1. A category A aircraft maintenance licence permits the holder to issue certificates of release to service following
minor scheduled line maintenance and simple defect rectification within the limits of tasks specifically endorsed
on the authorisation. The certification privileges shall be restricted to work that the licence holder has personally
performed in a Part-145 organisation.
2. A category B1 aircraft maintenance licence shall permit the holder to issue certificates of release to service
following maintenance, including aircraft structure, powerplant and mechanical and electrical systems. Replacement
of avionic line replaceable units, requiring simple tests to prove their serviceability, shall also be included in
the privileges. Category B1 shall automatically include the appropriate A subcategory.
3. A category B2 aircraft maintenance licence shall permit the holder to issue certificates of release to service
following maintenance on avionic and electrical systems.
4. A category C aircraft maintenance licence shall permit the holder to issue certificates of release to service
following base maintenance on aircraft. The privileges apply to the aircraft in its entirety in a Part-145 organisation.
(b) The holder of an aircraft maintenance licence may not exercise certification privileges unless:
1. in compliance with the applicable requirements of Part-M and/or Part-145.
2. in the preceding two-year period he/she has, either had six months of maintenance experience in accordance with
the privileges granted by the aircraft maintenance licence or, met the provision for the issue of the appropriate
privileges.
3. he/she is able to read, write and communicate to an understandable level in the language(s) in which the technical
documentation and procedures necessary to support the issue of the certificate of release to service are written.
66.A.25 Basic knowledge requirements
(a) An applicant for an aircraft maintenance licence or the addition of a category or subcategory to such an aircraft
maintenance licence shall demonstrate, by examination, a level of knowledge in the appropriate subject modules in
accordance with Appendix I to this Part.
The basic knowledge examinations shall be conducted by a training organisation appropriately approved under Part-
147 or by the competent authority.
(b) Full or partial credit against the basic knowledge requirements and associated examination shall be given for any
other technical qualification considered by the competent authority to be equivalent to the knowledge standard of
this Part. Such credits shall be established in accordance with Section B, Subpart E of this Part.
66.A.30 Experience requirements
(a) An applicant for an aircraft maintenance licence shall have acquired:
1. for category A and subcategories B1.2 and B1.4:
(i) three years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft, if the applicant has no previous relevant
technical training; or
(ii) two years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft and completion of training considered
relevant by the competent authority as a skilled worker, in a technical trade; or
(iii) one year of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft and completion of a Part-147 approved
basic training course.
2. for category B2 and subcategories B1.1 and B1.3:
(i) five years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft if the applicant has no previous relevant
technical training; or
(ii) three years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft and completion of training considered
relevant by the competent authority as a skilled worker, in a technical trade; or
(iii) two years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft and completion of a Part -147 approved
basic training course.
3. for category C with respect to large aircraft:
(i) three years of experience exercising category B1.1, B1.3 or B2 privileges on large aircraft or as Part-145 B1.1,
B1.3 or B2 support staff, or, a combination of both; or
(ii) five years of experience exercising category B1.2 or B1.4 privileges on large aircraft or as Part-145 B1.2 or
B1.4 support staff, or a combination of both; or
4. for category C with respect to non large aircraft:
three years of experience exercising category B1 or B.2 privileges on non large aircraft or as Part-145 B1 or B.2
support staff, or a combination of both; or
5. for category C obtained through the academic route:
an applicant holding an academic degree in a technical discipline, from a university or other higher educational
institution recognised by the competent authority, three years of experience working in a civil aircraft maintenance
environment on a representative selection of tasks directly associated with aircraft maintenance including
six months of observation of base maintenance tasks.
(b) An applicant for an extension to an aircraft maintenance licence shall have a minimum civil aircraft maintenance
experience requirement appropriate to the additional category or subcategory of licence applied for as defined in
Appendix IV to this Part.
(c) For category A, B1 and B2 the experience must be practical which means being involved with a representative cross
section of maintenance tasks on aircraft.
(d) For all applicants, at least one year of the required experience must be recent maintenance experience on aircraft of
the category/subcategory for which the initial aircraft maintenance licence is sought. For subsequent category/subcategory
additions to an existing aircraft maintenance licence, the additional recent maintenance experience required
may be less than one year, but must be at least three months. The required experience must be dependent upon the
difference between the licence category/subcategory held and applied for. Such additional experience must be typical
of the new licence category/subcategory sought.
(e) Notwithstanding paragraph (a), aircraft maintenance experience gained outside a civil aircraft maintenance environment
shall be accepted when such maintenance is equivalent to that required by this Part as established by the
competent authority. Additional experience of civil aircraft maintenance shall, however, be required to ensure understanding
of the civil aircraft maintenance environment.

1. Mathematics <> 2. Physics

3. Electrical Fundamentals <> 4. Electronic Fundamentals

5. Digital Techniques / Electronic Instrument Systems

6. Materials and Hardware <> 7. Maintenance Practices

8. Basic Aerodynamics <> 9. Human Factors <> 10. Aviation Legislation

11. Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems

12. Helicopter Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems

13. Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems

14. Propulsion <> 15. Gas Turbine Engine

16. Piston Engine <> 17. Propeller <> Essays

In aircraft maintenance personnel must be licensed to sign an aircraft airworthy. Most countries have or had their national maintenance licence. In the US there is still the A&P license. In the EU the member states created a common licence which is the JAR-66 licence. They were setting new standards which have been followed by many countries throughout the world. From 28 September 2003 on the EASA - European Safety Agency became responsible for the airworthyness standards for the majority of civil aircraft registered in the EU member states.

Mechanical and hydro-mechanical flight control systems are heavy and require careful routing of flight control cables through the aircraft using systems of pulleys, cranks, wires and, with hydraulically-assisted controls, hydraulic pipes. Both systems often require redundant backup to deal with failures, which again increases weight. Furthermore, both have limited ability to compensate for changing aerodynamic conditions. Dangerous characteristics such as stalling, spinning and Pilot-induced oscillation (PIO), which depend mainly on the stability and structure of the aircraft concerned rather than the control system itself, can still occur with these systems.

By using electrical control circuits combined with computers, designers can save weight, improve reliability, and use the computers to mitigate the undesirable characteristics mentioned above. Advanced modern fly-by-wire systems are also used to control otherwise unstable fighter aircraft.

The words "Fly-by-Wire" (FBW) imply an electrically-signaled only control system. However, the term is generally used in the sense of computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces. This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters. These are carefully developed and validated in order to produce maximum operational effect without compromising safety.

• Safety and Redundancy

Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed (four independent channels) in order to prevent loss of signals in the case of failure of one or even two channels. High performance aircraft that have FBW controls (also called CCVs or Control-Configured Vehicles) may be deliberately designed to have low or even negative aerodynamic stability in some flight regimes, the rapid-reacting CCV controls compensating for the lack of natural stability.

• Weight Saving

A FBW aircraft can be lighter than a similar design with conventional controls. Partly due to the lower overall weight of the system components; and partly because the natural aerodynamic stability of the aircraft can be relaxed, slightly for a transport aircraft and more for a maneuverable fighter, which means that the stability surfaces that are part of the aircraft structure can therefore be made smaller. These include the vertical and horizontal stabilizers (fin and tailplane) that are (normally) at the rear of the fuselage. If these structures can be reduced in size, airframe weight is reduced. The advantages of FBW controls were first exploited by the military and then in the commercial airline market. The Airbus series of airliners used full-authority FBW controls beginning with their A320 series, see A320 flight control (though some limited FBW functions existed on A310)^[6]. Boeing followed with their 777 and later designs.

Electronic fly-by-wire systems can respond flexibly to changing aerodynamic conditions, by tailoring flight control surface movements so that aircraft response to control inputs is appropriate to flight conditions. Electronic systems require less maintenance, whereas mechanical and hydraulic systems require lubrication, tension adjustments, leak checks, fluid changes, etc. Furthermore, putting circuitry between pilot and aircraft can enhance safety; for example the control system can try to prevent a stall, or it can stop the pilot from over stressing the airframe.

A fly-by-wire system actually replaces manual control of the aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals, and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface to provide the expected response. The actuators are usually hydraulic, but electric actuators have been used.

The main concern with fly-by-wire systems is reliability. While traditional mechanical or hydraulic control systems usually fail gradually, the loss of all flight control computers could immediately render the aircraft uncontrollable. For this reason, most fly-by-wire systems incorporate either redundant computers (triplex, quadruplex etc), some kind of mechanical or hydraulic backup or a combination of both. A "mixed" control system such as the latter is not desirable and modern FBW aircraft normally avoid it by having more independent FBW channels, thereby reducing the possibility of overall failure to minuscule levels that are acceptable to the independent regulatory and safety authority responsible for aircraft design, testing and certification before operational service.

Primary controls

Generally the primary cockpit controls are arranged as follows:

• A control column or a control yoke attached to a column—for roll and pitch, which moves the ailerons when turned or deflected left and right, and moves the elevators when moved backwards or forwards
• Rudder pedals to control yaw, which move the rudder; left foot forward will move the rudder left for instance.
• Throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft.

The image shows the basic principles and the correct sense of movement of the primary controls, also illustrating a simple mechanical primary flying control system.

Even when an aircraft uses different kinds of surfaces, such as a V-tail/ruddervator, flaperons, or elevons, to avoid pilot confusion the aircraft will still normally be designed so that the yoke or stick controls pitch and roll in the conventional way, as will the rudder pedals for yaw.

Secondary controls

In addition to the primary flight controls for roll, pitch, and yaw, there are often secondary controls available to give the pilot finer control over flight or to ease the workload. The most commonly-available control is a wheel or other device to control elevator trim, so that the pilot does not have to maintain constant backward or forward pressure to hold a specific pitch attitude (other types of trim, for rudder and ailerons, are common on larger aircraft but may also appear on smaller ones). Many aircraft have wing flaps, controlled by a switch or a mechanical lever, which alter the shape of the wing for improved control at the slower speeds used for takeoff and landing. Other secondary flight control systems may be available, including slats, spoilers, air brakes and variable-sweep wings.

Aircraft flight control systems consist of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed.

The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics. This article centers on the operating mechanisms of the flight controls

An electronic flight instrument system, or EFIS, is a flight deck instrument display system in which the display technology used is electronic rather than electromechanical. EFIS normally consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display (MFD) and Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) display. Although cathode ray tube (CRT) displays were used at first, liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more common.

The complex electromechanical attitude director indicator (ADI) and horizontal situation indicator (HSI) were the first candidates for replacement by EFIS. However, there are now few flight deck instruments for which no electronic display is available.

A primary flight display or PFD is a modern aircraft instrument dedicated to flight information. Much like multi-function displays, primary flight displays are built around an LCD or CRT display device. Representations of older six pack or "steam gauge" instruments are combined on one compact display, simplifying pilot workflow and streamlining cockpit layouts.

Most airliners built since the 1980s — as well as many business jets and an increasing number of newer general aviation aircraft — have glass cockpits equipped with primary flight and multi-function displays.

Mechanical gauges have not been completely eliminated from the cockpit with the onset of the PFD; they are retained for backup purposes in the event of total electrical failure.

The job of the Aircraft Altimeter is to perform its operation based on the principles of the average of the atmospheric pressure which reduces with the Altitude on a linear basis. The Pressure Altimeter is made to be encased with the help of a case that is connected with the help of the outside of the air craft with the help of an inlet of air pressure at the back side of the housing.

There are then a couple of aneroid capsules in an aircraft Altimeter that comprise corrugated metallic bellows that are required for exhausting air near the inlet. The capsules in the Landing Gear and Switch Cockpit enlarge once there is a fall in the external pressure (during a climb, for instance). The pressure in the Air Speed Indicator and TOT Indicator falls once the external pressure rises (when there is a descent) of the air craft Altitude.

An automatic display of the gears of a segment, the air craft pinion, back lash spring, as well as distension and extension of the aneroid capsules of the Directional and Vertical movements of the air craft helps convert the movement of the pointers of the Aircraft Altimeter on the dial.

The dial of the Aircraft Altimeter is calibrated in the form of feet or meters along with a range of pointers that are operated with the help of indicators that are driven by gears, like the hands of the clock. The Aircraft Altimeter indicates the Altitude of the air craft in the form of different units in the following categories:

§ Hundreds

§ Thousands

§ Tens of thousands

The scale of the barometric scale of an Aircraft Altimeter helps dial the records the pressure of the air with the help of milli bars or mb. The pressure Aircraft Altimeter needs to be fixed with the baro setting knob for making up for the fewer variations in the atmospheric pressure that are a result of the variations in the local weather. This is something that takes place due to the measurement of the atmospheric pressure relative to the sea level. A radio Altimeter is used to affix the distance of an air plane over the ground, instead of above the sea level.

The Aircraft Altimeter is an Instrument that is used to measure the Altitude of the surface of the land, or for that matter any object that can fly, like an air plane. There are 2 main varieties of altimeters that are used and they are the following:

Pressure Altimeter, or Aneroid barometer and

Radio Altimeter

The Pressure Altimeter or aneroid barometer helps approximate the Altitude of an object above the mean sea level. The task of the Radio Altimeter is to measure the absolute value of the altitude that is based on the time that is needed for the signal of a radio wave for traveling from an air craft from the ground and back. (Altitude refers to the distance of the land above the sea level).

The Air Speed Indicator is an Instrument that is used by the pilot on all the phases of the flight such as the following:

Take off

Climb

Cruise

Descent

Landing

It helps maintain the various kinds of air velocities that are particular to the type of the air craft as well as those that operate in various conditions.

The Directional motion of the aircraft increases the pressure as the speed of the aircraft increases. The pressure in an Air Speed Indicator is measured with the help of an Instrument that is known as the pitot tube, which is a U shaped apparatus that comprises a couple of openings, one of which is perpendicular to the flow of the air that goes past the aircraft. The other opening directly faces the flow of air. The Vertical movement of mercury or a similar kind of liquid helps make the bend in the tube full and these bends form a set of couple of parallel columns on the Indicator, which is balanced by air pressure on either side.

Once the static as well as ram pressures are equalized, the columns attain the same height on the Air Speed Indicator. The mercury on the ram part of the tube pushes back once the ram pressure rises. The Turbine Speed also makes the columns imbalanced once the tube is pushed back. The mean between the columns can be marked for indicating the speed of the aircraft. This is a value that is known as the indicated air speed and may be observed in the knots, or other units like miles per hour.

As the Air Speed Indicator is marked at a standard pressure and pressure, the readings are often inaccurate as well as different during different temperatures and altitudes. An incorrect indicated air speed is used for determining the tendency of an air craft to stall. Electronically accurate instruments for determining differences in Altitude and temperature help in determining the position of the aircraft.

A faster Air Speed Indicator helps in measuring the accurate air speed that is relative to the sound. This Indicator is known as a Mach meter.